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Why throughput testing matters Throughput is the number that operators, vendors and customers all ask about first. It is also one of the hardest to measure well. A speed-test app tells you what one phone saw at one moment. It doesn’t tell you what the radio, transport and core can sustain, or where the bottleneck is. RAN and core engineers need controlled, repeatable traffic with a known offered load, direction, packet size and duration. That is how they validate a new cell,

eAxC_ID Composer / Decomposer is an interactive tool for working with O-RAN fronthaul eAxC_IDs, where the 16-bit identifier is split into DU_Port_ID, BS_ID, CC_ID, and RU_Port_ID fields. Instead of hardcoding a fixed bit layout, the tool lets you define each field's bitmask yourself, so it adapts to any O-RAN eAxC_ID convention — including non-contiguous bit assignments — and flags overlaps or uncovered bits in real time on a live bit-grid. It supports two workflows: Construc

1. Introduction 5G NR fundamentally redesigned the user-plane architecture by introducing SDAP (Service Data Adaptation Protocol) above PDCP (Packet Data Convergence Protocol). LTE used a bearer-based QoS model. 5G uses a flow-based QoS model. This single architectural shift explains: Why SDAP was introduced Why PDCP evolved Why 5G scales better than LTE How URLLC, slicing, and dual connectivity are supported This article provides: Deep architectural explanation LTE vs 5G com