1) Introduction The 5G NR gNB split architecture divides the base station into functional entities — Central Unit (CU) , Distributed Unit (DU) , and Radio Unit (RU)  — to optimize deployment flexibility, scalability, and performance. This functional split enables c entralized control and distributed radio processing, allowing operators to balance latency-sensitive tasks at the edge (DU/RU) with higher-layer functions centralized (CU). The split reduces fronthaul bandwidth dem

O-DU ↔ O-RU Interoperability Troubleshooting (O-RAN WG4 C/U, S & M Planes)  focuses on identifying and resolving functional and timing mismatches between the Distributed Unit (O-DU) and Radio Unit (O-RU) across the Open Fronthaul interface defined by O-RAN Working Group 4. It provides a systematic approach to diagnosing issues in the Control/User Plane (C/U), Synchronization Plane (S), and Management Plane (M)—the three pillars of inter-vendor interoperability. The guide emph

Case Study – Low throughput issue mitigation Introduction The complexity of today’s telecom networks—driven by 5G’s massive scale, distributed Radio Access Network (RAN) architectures, and virtualized infrastructure—makes operational reliability and proactive fault management both a necessity and a challenge. Static rules and threshold-based monitoring techniques, once the backbone of network assurance, are now insufficient as data velocity, volume, and variety continue to gr

Introduction O-RAN (Open Radio Access Network) represents a paradigm shift in mobile network design, transforming traditional, vendor-locked RAN systems into open, interoperable, and intelligent ecosystems. It disaggregates hardware and software components, virtualizes RAN functions, and introduces open interfaces and AI/ML-driven automation for optimization and orchestration . The O-RAN architecture decouples the traditional base station into:   O-CU (Central Unit): Located

3GPP Release 16 , finalized in  June 2020 , represents  5G Phase 2 , refining the foundation laid by Release 15. It broadens 5G NR capabilities beyond enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), addressing  industrial automation ,  ultra-reliable low-latency communication (URLLC) ,  V2X ,  non-public networks (NPN) , and  integrated access and backhaul (IAB) . The RAN1–RAN5 workgroups each contributed critical enhancements, detailed below with their technical implications, implementati

3GPP Release 15 — Detailed Technical Analysis Across RAN Working Groups 3GPP Release 15, finalized in June 2018, marks the first commercial standardization of 5G New Radio (NR). It laid the foundation for 5G networks through Standalone (SA) and Non-Standalone (NSA) modes, introducing a service-based, virtualized core network and new physical-layer technologies for enhanced capacity, latency, and flexibility. Below is a detailed breakdown of RAN1–RAN5 contributions, along with

1. Introduction Link adaptation is a core feature in 5G NR that enables dynamic adjustment of transmission parameters — mainly the Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS) — based on real-time wireless channel conditions. This process ensures optimal throughput and reliability for each User Equipment (UE) by adapting to mobility, interference, fading, and changing network scenarios. Modern 5G networks advance beyond 4G LTE by employing smarter, faster, and more flexible link adapta

Introduction Voice over NR (VoNR) delivers real-time voice and video over 5G Standalone’s ultra-low latency, high capacity architecture,...

Introduction to 5G QoS Framework Quality of Service (QoS) is a fundamental networking mechanism that is essential for both 5G and LTE...

A detailed set of parameter and procedure adaptations in 5G NTN ensures successful attach, random access, AMF selection, Mobility and UE...

Downlink and uplink timing synchronization between the UE and gNB in a 5G NR Non-Terrestrial Network (NTN) introduces several unique...

Introduction The integration of Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) into the 5G ecosystem represents a significant evolution, aiming to...

What is 5G NTN 5G NTN(Non‑Terrestrial Networks) is the 3GPP‑standardized use of satellites and high‑altitude platforms as part of the 5G...

Introduction SON (Self Organizing Networks) is an automation framework that lets cellular networks configure, optimize, and heal...

Introduction Spectral Efficiency Spectral efficiency is the net data rate per unit bandwidth, usually measured in bit/s/Hz; it reflects...

Introduction Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) are becoming integral to the evolution of 5G Radio Access Networks...

What is CSI-RS and why it’s used Channel State Information Reference Signal (CSI-RS) is a configurable downlink reference signal used by...

Sounding Reference Signal (SRS)  is an uplink reference signal transmitted by the UE that enables the gNB to estimate uplink channel...

Certificate Management Protocol version 2 (CMPv2) and Transport Layer Security (TLS) callhome procedures form the cornerstone of secure...

1. Introduction DMRS (Demodulation Reference Signals) are UE-specific reference signals in 5G NR that provide essential channel...