1. Introduction Channel coding is one of the most fundamental building blocks of the 5G NR physical layer. It directly determines: Block Error Rate (BLER) Throughput at high MCS Latency predictability UE power consumption Hardware scalability in gNB and UE Unlike LTE, which relied almost exclusively on Turbo codes, 5G NR deliberately replaced Turbo codes with Low Density Parity Check (LDPC) codes for data channels and Polar codes for control channels.   LDPC Coding Chain in 5

1. Introduction Modern 5G radio access networks have reached a level of complexity where traditional automation approaches are no longer sufficient. While machine learning has been widely adopted in telecom analytics, most deployed solutions still behave as passive systems: they ingest data, run inference, and output a score, label, or alert. In practice, experienced RAN engineers do not work this way. They observe symptoms, form hypotheses, validate those hypotheses by check

Private 5G (also referred to as Non-Public Networks — NPNs) is the deployment of 5G technologies for the exclusive use of an organization, campus, industrial site, port or stadium. Unlike public/macrocell 5G, private 5G is designed to deliver dedicated capacity, stronger security controls, low and deterministic latency, and granular service control for vertical-specific applications (robotics, automation, AR/VR, mission-critical communications). 1. What is Private 5G What it

Wireless communication has undergone significant transformations over the past few decades. From the early days of analog signals to the sophisticated digital networks of today, the technology continues to evolve rapidly. As professionals and engineers working with LTE, 5G, 6G, and O-RAN technologies, understanding these changes is crucial. This article explores the wireless evolution trends shaping the industry and offers insights into what lies ahead. Understanding Wireless

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) has become a cornerstone technology in modern wireless communication systems such as LTE, 5G, and emerging 6G networks. At the heart of OFDM’s efficiency and robustness lie two fundamental mathematical tools: the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and its inverse (IFFT). Understanding how these transforms operate within OFDM is essential for professionals working with wireless technologies. Understanding FFT Applications in OFDM FFT

1.Introduction Cloud and Network Function Virtualization (NFV) for 5G networks represent a fundamental shift in how telecommunication networks are designed and managed. NFV decouples network functions from specialized hardware, allowing them to run as software on standard cloud infrastructure. This virtualization enables 5G networks to be more flexible, scalable, and cost-efficient by leveraging cloud-native principles and automation. It allows operators to dynamically alloca

The evolution of wireless communication has brought us to the era of 5G, a technology promising unprecedented speed, low latency, and massive connectivity. However, delivering these benefits consistently requires a robust system to manage network resources effectively. This is where the 5G Quality of Service (QoS) framework plays a critical role. It ensures that different types of traffic receive appropriate treatment based on their requirements, enabling seamless user experi

1.      Introduction The RRC_INACTIVE state represents a fundamental architectural innovation in 5G New Radio (NR), introduced to address critical latency and signaling overhead challenges that plagued LTE networks. In LTE, frequent transitions between RRC_IDLE and RRC_CONNECTED states created substantial network signaling load and introduced latency penalties during service resumption, particularly problematic for modern smartphone usage patterns characterized by frequent sm

Introduction 3GPP Release 18 marks the first 5G-Advanced release, focusing on AI/ML integration, extreme performance for XR/Industrial IoT, mobile IAB, enhanced positioning, and spectrum efficiency up to 71 GHz. RAN workgroups (RAN1–RAN5) deliver these through physical layer evolution, protocol optimizations, architecture updates, RF requirements, and testing frameworks.​ Release 18 builds on Rel-17's foundations with AI/ML for RAN optimization, centimeter-level positioning,

1. Introduction & scope Release-17 was intended as the first major consolidation/evolution step after Rel-16: adding new vertical and architectural capability without a full redesign. Release-17 contains both PHY-centric items (RAN1) and higher layer/procedural items (RAN2, RAN3), plus RF/test requirement updates (RAN4) and conformance/OAM items (RAN5). This article focuses on the RAN WGs (RAN1–RAN5) and practical implementation details drawn from the 3GPP work items and tech

1. Introduction Radio Access Networks are becoming more software-driven, disaggregated, and automation-centric. To handle the complexity of dense deployments, Massive MIMO, spectrum fragmentation, and diverse traffic profiles, operators are moving toward intelligent control loops in the RAN.This is where O-RAN Alliance’s RAN Intelligent Controller (RIC) architecture—featuring rApps (non-real time, >1 second) and xApps (near-real time, 10 ms–1 s)—comes into play. These applica

1) Introduction The 5G NR gNB split architecture divides the base station into functional entities — Central Unit (CU) , Distributed Unit (DU) , and Radio Unit (RU)  — to optimize deployment flexibility, scalability, and performance. This functional split enables c entralized control and distributed radio processing, allowing operators to balance latency-sensitive tasks at the edge (DU/RU) with higher-layer functions centralized (CU). The split reduces fronthaul bandwidth dem

O-DU ↔ O-RU Interoperability Troubleshooting (O-RAN WG4 C/U, S & M Planes)  focuses on identifying and resolving functional and timing mismatches between the Distributed Unit (O-DU) and Radio Unit (O-RU) across the Open Fronthaul interface defined by O-RAN Working Group 4. It provides a systematic approach to diagnosing issues in the Control/User Plane (C/U), Synchronization Plane (S), and Management Plane (M)—the three pillars of inter-vendor interoperability. The guide emph

Case Study – Low throughput issue mitigation Introduction The complexity of today’s telecom networks—driven by 5G’s massive scale, distributed Radio Access Network (RAN) architectures, and virtualized infrastructure—makes operational reliability and proactive fault management both a necessity and a challenge. Static rules and threshold-based monitoring techniques, once the backbone of network assurance, are now insufficient as data velocity, volume, and variety continue to gr

Introduction O-RAN (Open Radio Access Network) represents a paradigm shift in mobile network design, transforming traditional, vendor-locked RAN systems into open, interoperable, and intelligent ecosystems. It disaggregates hardware and software components, virtualizes RAN functions, and introduces open interfaces and AI/ML-driven automation for optimization and orchestration . The O-RAN architecture decouples the traditional base station into:   O-CU (Central Unit): Located

3GPP Release 16 , finalized in  June 2020 , represents  5G Phase 2 , refining the foundation laid by Release 15. It broadens 5G NR capabilities beyond enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), addressing  industrial automation ,  ultra-reliable low-latency communication (URLLC) ,  V2X ,  non-public networks (NPN) , and  integrated access and backhaul (IAB) . The RAN1–RAN5 workgroups each contributed critical enhancements, detailed below with their technical implications, implementati

3GPP Release 15 — Detailed Technical Analysis Across RAN Working Groups 3GPP Release 15, finalized in June 2018, marks the first commercial standardization of 5G New Radio (NR). It laid the foundation for 5G networks through Standalone (SA) and Non-Standalone (NSA) modes, introducing a service-based, virtualized core network and new physical-layer technologies for enhanced capacity, latency, and flexibility. Below is a detailed breakdown of RAN1–RAN5 contributions, along with

1. Introduction Link adaptation is a core feature in 5G NR that enables dynamic adjustment of transmission parameters — mainly the Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS) — based on real-time wireless channel conditions. This process ensures optimal throughput and reliability for each User Equipment (UE) by adapting to mobility, interference, fading, and changing network scenarios. Modern 5G networks advance beyond 4G LTE by employing smarter, faster, and more flexible link adapta

Introduction Voice over NR (VoNR) delivers real-time voice and video over 5G Standalone’s ultra-low latency, high capacity architecture,...

Introduction to 5G QoS Framework Quality of Service (QoS) is a fundamental networking mechanism that is essential for both 5G and LTE...