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3GPP Release 16 , finalized in  June 2020 , represents  5G Phase 2 , refining the foundation laid by Release 15. It broadens 5G NR capabilities beyond enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), addressing  industrial automation ,  ultra-reliable low-latency communication (URLLC) ,  V2X ,  non-public networks (NPN) , and  integrated access and backhaul (IAB) . The RAN1–RAN5 workgroups each contributed critical enhancements, detailed below with their technical implications, implementati

Introduction The integration of Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) into the 5G ecosystem represents a significant evolution, aiming to...

Introduction Timing Advance (TA) is a critical concept in 4G Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and 5G New Radio (NR) systems, ensuring...

Introduction Cyclic Prefix (CP) is a crucial component in Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) systems, which are the...

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a cornerstone of modern wireless communication systems, offering robustness against...

1. Introduction to HARQ HARQ  (Hybrid Automatic Repeat reQuest) is a critical error control method used in wireless systems like LTE and...

Introduction The transition from 4G to 5G is not just a generational shift in radio technology but a complete transformation of the core...

Introduction The Random Access CHannel (RACH) procedure is the gateway to the 5G Standalone (SA) network. It allows the User Equipment...

Introduction The O-RAN Alliance Workgroup 4 (WG4) focuses on defining open fronthaul interfaces between the O-DU (Distributed Unit) and...