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1. Introduction Radio Access Networks are becoming more software-driven, disaggregated, and automation-centric. To handle the complexity of dense deployments, Massive MIMO, spectrum fragmentation, and diverse traffic profiles, operators are moving toward intelligent control loops in the RAN.This is where O-RAN Alliance’s RAN Intelligent Controller (RIC) architecture—featuring rApps (non-real time, >1 second) and xApps (near-real time, 10 ms–1 s)—comes into play. These applica

Introduction The transition from 4G to 5G is not just a generational shift in radio technology but a complete transformation of the core...

Introduction The Random Access CHannel (RACH) procedure is the gateway to the 5G Standalone (SA) network. It allows the User Equipment...

Introduction As 6G research gathers momentum, the demand for higher data rates, massive connectivity, and extreme spectral efficiency is...

Introduction The Synchronization Signal Block (SSB) is a fundamental component of 5G New Radio (NR) systems, enabling user equipment (UE)...