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1. Introduction Radio Access Networks are becoming more software-driven, disaggregated, and automation-centric. To handle the complexity of dense deployments, Massive MIMO, spectrum fragmentation, and diverse traffic profiles, operators are moving toward intelligent control loops in the RAN.This is where O-RAN Alliance’s RAN Intelligent Controller (RIC) architecture—featuring rApps (non-real time, >1 second) and xApps (near-real time, 10 ms–1 s)—comes into play. These applica

Introduction O-RAN (Open Radio Access Network) represents a paradigm shift in mobile network design, transforming traditional, vendor-locked RAN systems into open, interoperable, and intelligent ecosystems. It disaggregates hardware and software components, virtualizes RAN functions, and introduces open interfaces and AI/ML-driven automation for optimization and orchestration . The O-RAN architecture decouples the traditional base station into:   O-CU (Central Unit): Located

Introduction Spectral Efficiency Spectral efficiency is the net data rate per unit bandwidth, usually measured in bit/s/Hz; it reflects...

Sounding Reference Signal (SRS)  is an uplink reference signal transmitted by the UE that enables the gNB to estimate uplink channel...

Introduction As the wireless industry looks beyond 5G, 6G networks are expected to revolutionize not only connectivity speeds but also...